Introduction
The Perioikoi were a major social group within the ancient Spartan state. Their name means those who dwell around or those living nearby.
They lived in towns and villages across Laconia and, during periods of Spartan control, parts of Messenia.
The Perioikoi were personally free, unlike the helots, but they did not possess the full political rights enjoyed by the Spartan citizen class known as the Homoioi.
They managed their own local communities, worked as farmers, merchants, sailors and craftsmen and served in the Spartan military.
Their economic and military contributions were essential to Sparta.
Spartan citizens devoted much of their lives to military training, communal dining and public service. The Perioikoi therefore performed many of the commercial and industrial activities needed to support the state.
They produced weapons, armour, pottery, tools and luxury goods. They operated ports, traded with foreign communities and helped maintain communication between Sparta and the wider Greek world.
Despite their importance, the Perioikoi remain less famous than the Spartan warriors and the helots.
Ancient writers usually focused upon kings, battles and citizen institutions, leaving fewer detailed descriptions of Perioikic life.
Understanding the Perioikoi is essential because Sparta could not have functioned as a military power without them.
The Meaning of the Name Perioikoi
The word Perioikoi comes from Greek words meaning around and household or settlement.
It is commonly translated as dwellers around, neighbours or surrounding inhabitants.
The name reflected their geographical position around the central settlements of Sparta.
It also described their political relationship with the Spartan citizen community.
They belonged to the wider Lacedaemonian state but remained outside the ruling body of full Spartan citizens.
The singular form of the term is Perioikos, while Perioikoi refers to the group as a whole.
Sparta and Lacedaemon
Ancient Sparta was located in the region of Laconia in the southern Peloponnese.
The wider state was often called Lacedaemon.
It included the central Spartan settlements, numerous Perioikic towns and a large population of helots.
The Spartan citizen body occupied the political centre of the state, while the Perioikoi lived across the surrounding territory.
This wider system allowed Sparta to control a much larger region than the city itself.
The Geography of Laconia
Laconia contained the fertile valley of the River Eurotas, coastal plains, mountain ranges and isolated settlements.
Mount Taygetus stood to the west, while Mount Parnon rose to the east.
The mountains created natural barriers but also contained forests, stone, metals and pastureland.
Perioikic communities occupied many of the routes, valleys and coastal areas linking Sparta with the sea.
Their location gave them control over resources and trade routes unavailable within the central Spartan settlement.
The Spartan Social System
Spartan society is often described as containing three major groups.
The Homoioi or Spartiates were the full male citizens.
The Perioikoi were free inhabitants without full Spartan political rights.
The helots were an unfree agricultural population controlled by the state and citizen households.
These categories were not perfectly simple, and other groups appeared during different periods.
However, the division helps explain the organisation of Spartan power.
The Homoioi
The Homoioi were the full Spartan citizens, sometimes translated as the Equals.
They completed the agoge, joined communal dining groups and served in the citizen army.
They possessed the right to attend the Spartan Assembly and compete for important offices.
Their public lifestyle depended upon the agricultural labour of helots and the economic activities of the Perioikoi.
The Helots
The helots were an unfree population forced to farm land controlled by Sparta.
They delivered a fixed portion of agricultural produce to Spartan citizen households.
Many helots lived in Laconia and conquered Messenia.
They greatly outnumbered the full citizens and remained a constant source of fear and potential rebellion.
The Perioikoi occupied a social position between the privileged Homoioi and the unfree helots.
The Legal Status of the Perioikoi
The Perioikoi were legally free people.
They could form households, own property, work in trades and manage local affairs.
They were not attached to the land in the same way as helots.
They were also not normally treated as private property belonging to individual Spartan citizens.
However, they owed obedience and military service to the Spartan state.
They lacked participation in the central political institutions controlled by the Homoioi.
Freedom Without Full Citizenship
The position of the Perioikoi demonstrates that freedom and citizenship were not identical in ancient Greece.
A Perioikos was free in personal and economic life but did not enjoy full political membership within Sparta.
He could own land and conduct business but could not normally vote in the Spartan Assembly.
He could fight for Sparta but could not join the ruling citizen class merely through military service.
This distinction created a large population that supported the state without controlling its central government.
Political Exclusion
The Perioikoi did not participate in the Spartan Assembly known as the Apella.
They did not elect the ephors or members of the Gerousia.
They could not become one of Sparta’s two kings.
They were therefore excluded from the institutions that determined war, diplomacy and state policy.
Decisions made by the Homoioi affected Perioikic communities even though those communities had little direct influence over them.
Local Government
Although excluded from central Spartan politics, the Perioikoi appear to have managed many of their own local affairs.
Their towns may have possessed magistrates, councils, religious officials and local laws.
The precise organisation probably differed from one settlement to another.
Sparta allowed local administration as long as the communities remained loyal, provided resources and obeyed military commands.
Perioikic Towns
The Perioikoi lived in numerous towns scattered across Laconia and neighbouring territories.
Ancient sources sometimes referred to a traditional number of one hundred Perioikic communities.
This figure may have been symbolic or approximate rather than an exact count at every period.
Important settlements included Gytheion, Sellasia, Amyclae, Thouria, Boiai and communities on the island of Cythera.
Gytheion
Gytheion was the principal harbour serving Sparta.
It stood upon the Laconian Gulf south of the central Spartan settlements.
The port allowed the movement of troops, timber, grain, metal and other goods.
Perioikic sailors, merchants and craftsmen were essential to its operation.
Gytheion became especially important when Sparta developed naval ambitions during the Peloponnesian War.
Cythera
Cythera was an island off the southern coast of the Peloponnese.
Its position made it important for controlling sea routes around Laconia.
The island contained Perioikic settlements and provided access to maritime trade.
Athens captured Cythera during the Peloponnesian War, creating a serious threat to Spartan territory.
Sellasia
Sellasia stood upon an important northern route leading into the Eurotas valley.
Its position gave it strategic value because invading armies approaching Sparta from the north could pass nearby.
The settlement later became the site of a major battle in which Macedonian forces defeated King Cleomenes the Third.
Amyclae
Amyclae was an ancient settlement south of Sparta.
It became part of the Spartan state but preserved important religious traditions.
The sanctuary of Apollo at Amyclae was one of the most significant sacred centres in Laconia.
The community’s history shows how older populations and local identities could be incorporated into the wider Lacedaemonian system.
The Origins of the Perioikoi
The exact origins of the Perioikoi are uncertain.
They may have descended from communities incorporated into the Spartan state without being reduced to helot status.
Some settlements may have submitted peacefully, while others were conquered or reorganised.
Differences in local resistance, strategic importance and economic value may have influenced the status granted to each population.
Dorian Migration
Later Greek tradition connected Sparta with the arrival of Dorian-speaking peoples in the Peloponnese.
These stories described the descendants of Heracles returning to claim the region.
Modern historians treat such traditions cautiously because population change was probably gradual and complex.
The Perioikoi may have included groups with different ethnic and historical backgrounds incorporated into the Spartan system over time.
Conquest and Incorporation
Sparta expanded from the Eurotas valley and gradually brought surrounding communities under its control.
Some conquered populations became helots, especially in fertile agricultural regions.
Others retained personal freedom as Perioikoi.
Strategic towns, coastal settlements and communities with specialised skills may have been more useful to Sparta as free dependants than as an enslaved workforce.
Amyclae and Early Expansion
Amyclae was once an independent and important settlement.
Sparta eventually incorporated it into its territory.
Its people did not simply disappear, and its religious traditions continued.
The incorporation of Amyclae may illustrate how communities became part of the Lacedaemonian state while retaining local identity.
The Economic Role of the Perioikoi
The Perioikoi performed much of the economic activity that Spartan citizens avoided or were discouraged from undertaking.
They farmed land, raised animals, manufactured goods, traded with foreigners and operated ports.
Their work supplied the army and supported the daily needs of the wider population.
Without Perioikic production, the Spartan citizen lifestyle could not have been maintained.
Agriculture
Many Perioikoi were farmers.
They cultivated grain, olives, vines and other crops upon land belonging to their communities or households.
Unlike the helots, they appear to have controlled their own production more directly.
They also raised sheep, goats, cattle and horses.
Agriculture supported local life and provided goods for trade and military supply.
Pastoral Farming
The mountains and uplands of Laconia were suitable for grazing animals.
Perioikic communities raised sheep and goats for meat, milk, leather and wool.
Wool supported textile production, while leather was needed for sandals, shields, armour fittings and containers.
Olive Oil
Olive cultivation was important throughout the Greek world.
Olive oil was used for cooking, lighting, athletics, religious offerings and personal care.
Perioikic farmers produced oil for local use and trade.
Amphorae and storage vessels were needed to transport and preserve it.
Wine
Vines grew in suitable parts of Laconia and nearby regions.
Perioikic communities produced wine for households, communal meals, festivals and trade.
Wine was normally mixed with water before consumption.
Craftsmanship
The Perioikoi were closely associated with craftsmanship and manufacturing.
They worked as metalworkers, potters, builders, shipwrights, leatherworkers and carpenters.
These trades required knowledge and experience that could not be replaced easily by military training.
Spartan citizens depended upon Perioikic craftsmen for weapons, tools and domestic goods.
Metalworking
Metalworkers produced spears, swords, helmets, armour, shields and tools.
They worked with iron, bronze and other metals.
Weapons needed regular repair and replacement, especially during extended wars.
Perioikic metalworking was therefore directly connected with Spartan military power.
Spartan Weapons
The famous weapons carried by Spartan hoplites were not generally manufactured by the warriors themselves.
Craftsmen within Perioikic communities produced and repaired much of this equipment.
The military reputation of the Homoioi depended upon the technical skill of workers who did not share their political status.
Shield Production
The large hoplite shield required wood, bronze, leather and careful construction.
Its curved body had to be strong enough to resist blows while remaining light enough to carry.
Perioikic craftsmen may have produced shields displaying the lambda associated with Lacedaemon.
Armour Production
Helmets, breastplates, greaves and other protective equipment required specialised metalworking.
Armour had to fit the body and allow movement.
The quality of craftsmanship could determine whether a warrior survived a spear thrust or sword blow.
Pottery
Perioikic potters produced vessels used for storage, cooking, drinking and transport.
Large jars held grain, oil and wine.
Smaller cups and bowls served households and communal meals.
Pottery also played a role in religious offerings and funerals.
Laconian Pottery
Laconian pottery became well known during the Archaic period.
It was exported to parts of the Mediterranean and has been found at distant archaeological sites.
Decorated cups and vessels show that early Spartan-controlled territory participated actively in artistic exchange.
Perioikic craftsmen may have produced much of this material.
Bronze Work
Laconian bronze objects were admired in the ancient Greek world.
Craftsmen produced vessels, figurines, tripods and decorative attachments.
Some items were dedicated in sanctuaries far beyond Sparta.
This evidence challenges the idea that Spartan society lacked art or skilled production.
Ivory and Luxury Goods
Archaeological discoveries reveal ivory carvings and other luxury goods from early Laconia.
Such objects required imported material and specialised craftsmanship.
Their existence shows that the region was not always isolated from international trade.
Perioikic merchants and artisans probably played important roles in these exchanges.
Textile Production
Textile work included spinning, weaving and dyeing wool or linen.
Much of this work took place within households, though specialised production may also have existed.
Clothing, cloaks, sails and military fabrics were necessary for civilian and military life.
Leatherworking
Leatherworkers produced sandals, belts, armour fittings, shield coverings and containers.
Animal hides had to be cleaned, treated and shaped.
The strong smell and waste of tanning encouraged workshops to operate away from densely occupied areas.
Carpentry
Carpenters built houses, furniture, wagons, agricultural equipment and parts of ships.
Wood was also needed for spear shafts, shields and siege machines.
The forests of Laconia and nearby mountains supplied valuable timber.
Stoneworking
Perioikic builders and stonecutters helped construct temples, fortifications, roads and public buildings.
Stoneworking required knowledge of quarrying, transport and precise fitting.
Local stone and marble were used according to availability.
Shipbuilding
Sparta was primarily known as a land power, but it eventually developed fleets.
Ships required timber, rope, metal fittings, sails and skilled labour.
Perioikic shipwrights and coastal communities were essential to naval construction and maintenance.
Trade
The Perioikoi connected Sparta with regional and international markets.
They exchanged agricultural products, pottery, metalwork, timber and other goods.
They imported materials that were scarce in Laconia.
Trade brought foreign coins, ideas and products into the Spartan state.
Maritime Trade
Coastal Perioikic settlements used the Laconian Gulf and surrounding seas for commerce.
Ships travelled towards Crete, the Aegean islands, Italy and other regions of the Mediterranean.
Ports allowed Sparta to receive supplies that could not be produced locally.
Foreign Merchants
Foreign merchants visited Perioikic ports and markets.
They brought grain, metals, luxury goods and specialised materials.
Spartan suspicion of foreign influence did not eliminate practical economic exchange.
The Perioikoi acted as intermediaries between conservative Spartan citizens and the wider world.
Coinage
Ancient stories claimed that Sparta used heavy iron currency to discourage wealth and luxury.
Historical and archaeological evidence indicates that ordinary Greek coinage also circulated within the wider Spartan economy.
Perioikic merchants needed practical forms of payment when trading with foreigners.
The economy was therefore more complex than the traditional story of iron money suggests.
Markets
Perioikic towns contained local markets where farmers and craftsmen exchanged goods.
Coastal centres may have hosted larger commercial areas connected with shipping.
Markets also provided places for news, contracts and social interaction.
The Military Role of the Perioikoi
The Perioikoi served in the armed forces of the Spartan state.
They fought as hoplites, light infantry, sailors and possibly cavalry.
Their contribution became increasingly important as the number of full Spartan citizens declined.
In many campaigns, Perioikic soldiers greatly outnumbered the Homoioi.
Perioikic Hoplites
Many Perioikoi fought as heavily armed hoplites.
They carried shields, spears, swords and armour similar to those of Spartan citizens.
They served within the wider Lacedaemonian army and followed Spartan commanders.
Their discipline and equipment made them valuable battlefield troops.
The Phalanx
Perioikic hoplites fought within the phalanx.
The formation depended upon overlapping shields and coordinated movement.
Every soldier had to maintain position and protect the man beside him.
Although ancient writers praised Spartan citizen discipline, the wider army also relied upon trained Perioikoi and allies.
Military Training
The Perioikoi did not normally pass through the complete Spartan agoge reserved for citizen boys.
However, they required enough training to fight effectively in organised formations.
Local communities may have supervised military exercise and equipment.
Service alongside Spartans also exposed them to Lacedaemonian methods of command and discipline.
Command Structure
Spartan kings, polemarchs and other citizen officers normally held the highest military commands.
Perioikic soldiers served beneath this leadership.
Some Perioikoi may have held lower ranks or commanded units from their own communities.
Their exclusion from central politics did not prevent them from carrying serious military responsibility.
The Battle of Thermopylae
Perioikoi were among the forces connected with the Greek defence against Persia.
At Thermopylae, the famous three hundred Spartan citizens were not the only Lacedaemonians present.
Several hundred men from the Perioikic town of Thespiae were not Lacedaemonians, but Perioikic troops from Laconia also served in the wider campaign.
Popular stories often focus upon the Homoioi and overlook the broader military contribution of dependent communities.
The Battle of Plataea
At the Battle of Plataea in 479 BCE, the Lacedaemonian army included thousands of Perioikic hoplites as well as Spartan citizens and helot attendants.
The Perioikoi formed a major part of the force that defeated the Persian army.
Their presence demonstrates that Spartan military success was never achieved by the citizen elite alone.
The Peloponnesian War
The Perioikoi served throughout the Peloponnesian War between Sparta and Athens.
They fought in land campaigns, guarded Laconia and served in naval operations.
The long conflict increased Sparta’s need for manpower beyond the shrinking Homoioi class.
Naval Service
Sparta lacked the long naval tradition of Athens.
Perioikic coastal communities supplied sailors and maritime knowledge.
They helped crew ships, maintain harbours and transport soldiers.
Their skills became especially important when Sparta built the fleet that eventually defeated Athens.
Gytheion and the Spartan Fleet
Gytheion served as the principal naval base of Sparta.
Ships were built, repaired and supplied there.
Perioikic workers managed much of the practical activity required to keep a fleet operational.
Athenian forces attacked the port because they recognised its strategic importance.
Military Colonies and Garrisons
Perioikoi could serve in garrisons and fortified settlements.
Their towns protected roads, coasts and mountain passes.
Strategically placed communities acted as the first line of defence around the central Spartan territory.
Defence of Laconia
Because Perioikic settlements surrounded Sparta, they provided warning against invasion.
They guarded approaches through the mountains and along the coast.
An enemy often had to pass through Perioikic territory before reaching the Eurotas valley.
The Battle of Sellasia
In 222 BCE, a major battle occurred near the Perioikic settlement of Sellasia.
King Cleomenes the Third attempted to defend Sparta against Macedonian and allied forces.
The battle ended in a decisive Spartan defeat.
The location shows the continuing strategic importance of Perioikic territory during the Hellenistic period.
The Perioikoi and the Spartan Army’s Decline
As the Homoioi population declined, Sparta increasingly relied upon Perioikoi, freed helots and mercenaries.
The Perioikoi provided a larger and more stable source of manpower.
However, Sparta remained reluctant to grant them full citizenship.
This refusal limited the state’s ability to rebuild its ruling and military class.
Why the Perioikoi Remained Loyal
The reasons for Perioikic loyalty are not fully known.
They may have benefited from local autonomy, security and access to Spartan markets.
Spartan military protection may have defended them from external threats.
Local elites could have gained influence through cooperation with the ruling state.
Fear of Spartan punishment also played a role.
Local Autonomy
Sparta appears to have allowed the Perioikoi considerable freedom in everyday local administration.
They could manage economic activity and maintain local religious customs.
This autonomy may have made their position more acceptable than that of the helots.
They obeyed Sparta in foreign policy and military matters while retaining local identity.
Economic Benefits
Membership within the Lacedaemonian state gave Perioikic merchants access to a wide regional market.
Military demand created steady work for craftsmen and suppliers.
Sparta’s reputation and alliances may have protected trade routes.
Some Perioikic families probably became wealthy through commerce and production.
Coercion
Perioikic loyalty cannot be explained only through benefit.
Sparta possessed the military power to punish rebellion.
Communities that resisted could lose land, freedom or lives.
The absence of recorded revolts may reflect effective control as well as acceptance.
The Perioikoi and Helot Revolts
Perioikoi generally remained loyal during major helot uprisings.
They fought beside Sparta rather than joining the rebellion.
This choice may have reflected fear of disorder or a desire to preserve their own free status.
The social distance between Perioikoi and helots could be more important than their shared exclusion from full citizenship.
The Earthquake and Revolt
A severe earthquake struck Sparta during the fifth century BCE.
Helots and Messenians used the disruption to rebel.
Perioikic communities appear to have remained within the Spartan alliance.
Their support helped the state survive a dangerous internal crisis.
Kinadon’s Conspiracy
During the early fourth century BCE, a man named Kinadon organised a conspiracy against the Spartan citizen elite.
Ancient sources state that he hoped to unite groups excluded from full citizenship, including Perioikoi, helots and inferior Spartans.
The conspiracy was discovered before it could begin.
The episode suggests that resentment existed beneath the surface of Lacedaemonian society.
Kinadon
Kinadon was personally free and connected with military activity but was not one of the full Equals.
He reportedly pointed out how few Homoioi were present compared with the large population they ruled.
His plot exposed the vulnerability of the Spartan citizen class.
Perioikic Participation in the Conspiracy
It is uncertain how many Perioikoi actively supported Kinadon.
The conspirators believed that excluded groups shared hostility towards the Homoioi.
Even if the plan exaggerated popular support, it reveals the potential for political tension.
The Perioikoi and Spartan Politics
The Perioikoi were governed by decisions in which they had little formal role.
Spartan kings and ephors could order them into war.
They paid obligations, supplied equipment and followed foreign policy determined by the Homoioi.
Their political exclusion was one of the central inequalities of the Spartan state.
The Apella
The Spartan Assembly was known as the Apella.
Only eligible male citizens participated.
Perioikoi could not normally vote upon the decisions that controlled their communities and military service.
The Ephors
The five ephors were elected annually from the Spartan citizen body.
They supervised government, education, diplomacy and public discipline.
Their authority extended across the wider Lacedaemonian state, including Perioikic settlements.
The Gerousia
The Gerousia was a council of elders containing twenty-eight elected citizens and the two kings.
Perioikoi could not become members.
The council prepared policies and judged serious cases affecting the state.
The Kings
Sparta possessed two hereditary kings.
They commanded armies and performed important religious duties.
Perioikic soldiers followed royal leadership during campaigns but had no role in choosing the kings.
The Mixed Constitution
Ancient writers praised Sparta for combining kingship, a council of elders, ephors and a citizen assembly.
This mixed constitution included different elements within the Homoioi class.
It did not include the Perioikoi or helots as equal political participants.
Religion Among the Perioikoi
Perioikic communities worshipped the major Greek gods and maintained local cults.
They participated in festivals connecting them with the wider Spartan state.
Religious traditions helped preserve local identity while reinforcing loyalty to Lacedaemon.
Apollo
Apollo was especially important throughout Laconia.
The sanctuary at Amyclae honoured Apollo and Hyacinthus.
Festivals brought together Spartans, Perioikoi and other inhabitants of the region.
The Hyacinthia
The Hyacinthia was a major festival held at Amyclae.
It combined mourning for Hyacinthus with celebration of Apollo.
Processions, sacrifices, music and feasting created a shared regional event.
Perioikic participation demonstrated their connection with Spartan religious identity.
Artemis Orthia
The sanctuary of Artemis Orthia stood near Sparta and was closely associated with youth rituals.
Although its most famous practices involved Spartan citizen boys, the cult existed within the wider religious landscape shared by surrounding communities.
Poseidon
Coastal Perioikic communities honoured Poseidon as god of the sea and earthquakes.
Sailors prayed for safe voyages, while fishermen and merchants depended upon favourable weather.
Local Heroes
Perioikic towns maintained cults of founders, warriors and local heroes.
These traditions connected families and communities with particular landscapes.
Spartan rule did not erase every local religious identity.
Sanctuaries and Trade
Religious festivals attracted visitors and merchants.
Perioikic craftsmen sold offerings, pottery, food and other goods near sanctuaries.
Religion therefore supported economic activity as well as communal identity.
Perioikic Families
Perioikic households managed farms, workshops and businesses.
Family members inherited property and passed trades between generations.
Household organisation probably resembled that of other Greek communities more closely than the highly regulated lifestyle of the Homoioi.
Marriage
Perioikoi married within their communities and formed local family networks.
Marriage alliances could connect landowners, merchants and craftsmen.
Unlike full Spartan citizens, they were not required to organise their adult lives around the syssitia.
Women Among the Perioikoi
Very little direct evidence survives about Perioikic women.
They probably worked within households, farms, textile production and family businesses.
Their legal and social position may have differed from that of Spartan citizen women.
Local custom, wealth and occupation would have shaped their lives.
Property
Perioikoi could own and transfer property.
Their control of land and workshops distinguished them from helots.
Successful merchants and craftsmen may have accumulated considerable wealth.
However, wealth did not grant them full Spartan citizenship.
Education
Perioikic boys did not normally enter the full agoge.
They still required education appropriate to family occupations and military obligations.
They may have learned reading, writing, calculation, craft skills and local religious customs.
Training often took place within households or apprenticeships.
Apprenticeship
Young people learned crafts by working beside experienced relatives or masters.
A metalworker’s son could learn to manage a furnace and shape bronze or iron.
A merchant’s child could learn weights, measures and trade routes.
Practical education preserved specialised knowledge across generations.
Literacy
Merchants and officials needed some literacy for accounts, contracts and inscriptions.
Perioikic communities may have possessed scribes and local administrators.
The level of literacy varied according to occupation and social status.
The Perioikoi and the Agoge
The agoge was primarily designed for the sons of the Spartan citizen class.
Perioikoi were generally excluded because completion of the system was linked with full citizenship.
The distinction helped preserve the social boundary between rulers and free dependants.
Trophimoi
Some non-Spartan boys known as trophimoi received education in Sparta.
These outsiders were often connected with wealthy or politically important families.
Participation in Spartan education did not automatically make them Homoioi.
Their existence shows that access to elements of the agoge was possible under exceptional circumstances.
Military Education Outside the Agoge
Perioikic soldiers needed training even without formal participation in the agoge.
Local drills, hunting, athletics and military service could prepare them for war.
The Spartan army required them to understand commands and formation discipline.
The Perioikoi and the Syssitia
Perioikoi did not normally belong to the citizen communal dining groups.
The syssitia were central markers of Homoioi identity.
Exclusion from these meals reinforced political and social separation.
Perioikic soldiers could fight beside citizens but did not share every part of their communal life.
Social Contact with Homoioi
Perioikoi interacted with Spartan citizens through military service, trade, religious festivals and administration.
Craftsmen supplied citizen households and the army.
Local leaders may have negotiated directly with Spartan officials.
However, social boundaries remained important.
Perioikic Elites
Some Perioikic families likely became wealthy and influential within their towns.
They may have controlled land, trade or local offices.
Sparta could govern more effectively by cooperating with these local elites.
Their status within their own communities may have been high despite exclusion from central citizenship.
Difference Between Perioikoi and Metics
The Perioikoi should not be confused with the metics of Athens.
Metics were resident foreigners living within an independent city where they lacked citizenship.
The Perioikoi were native inhabitants of communities incorporated into the Spartan state.
They possessed local towns and collective identities rather than simply living as immigrants in Sparta.
Difference Between Perioikoi and Helots
The most important difference was personal freedom.
Perioikoi could own property, choose occupations and manage local communities.
Helots were forced to labour and deliver agricultural produce.
Perioikoi served Sparta as free dependants, while helots lived under direct coercion.
Difference Between Perioikoi and Homoioi
The Homoioi possessed full political rights and completed the agoge.
The Perioikoi lacked central citizenship but performed essential economic and military work.
The Homoioi ruled the state, while the Perioikoi supported it.
Both groups were free, but their freedom carried very different levels of political power.
Difference Between Perioikoi and Allies
The Perioikoi were subjects of the Lacedaemonian state rather than independent allies.
Members of the Peloponnesian League retained their own governments and negotiated through alliance structures.
Perioikic towns were more directly controlled by Sparta and could not conduct independent foreign policy.
The Perioikoi and the Peloponnesian League
Sparta led the Peloponnesian League, an alliance of independent states.
Perioikic communities were not separate league members because they formed part of Lacedaemon.
The troops they supplied were counted within Spartan forces rather than as independent allied contingents.
The Perioikoi in Diplomatic Life
Perioikoi did not normally conduct independent diplomacy.
Foreign relations were controlled by Spartan kings, ephors and the citizen authorities.
However, merchants and sailors interacted regularly with foreigners and transmitted information across borders.
Travel
Perioikoi travelled for trade, military service and religious festivals.
Their contact with other communities may have made them more familiar with foreign customs than many Homoioi.
They acted as an important channel through which outside goods and ideas entered Laconia.
Spartan Isolation
Ancient writers often portrayed Sparta as hostile to foreign influence.
Spartan authorities sometimes expelled foreigners or discouraged citizen travel.
The practical economy nevertheless required continued contact with neighbouring regions.
The Perioikoi made such contact possible without requiring Homoioi to become merchants.
The Perioikoi and Innovation
Craft production required adaptation and technical experimentation.
Perioikic artisans developed methods for working metal, pottery, stone and timber.
They responded to changing military and commercial demands.
Their work provided a degree of flexibility within a society famous for conservatism.
Siege Technology
Later Greek warfare involved siege engines, fortifications and increasingly complex equipment.
Perioikic craftsmen and engineers may have contributed to the construction and maintenance of such devices.
Military adaptation depended upon specialised labour outside the citizen warrior class.
Roads and Transport
Perioikic communities maintained roads connecting farms, towns, ports and military positions.
Transport required carts, pack animals and storage facilities.
Efficient movement of supplies was essential during campaigns.
Military Supply
An army required more than trained soldiers.
Food, water, clothing, weapons, animals and transport had to be organised.
Perioikic farmers, craftsmen and merchants provided much of this support.
The success of Spartan campaigns depended upon logistics that ancient heroic stories often ignore.
Helot Attendants and Perioikic Soldiers
Spartan armies often included Homoioi, Perioikoi, helot attendants and allied troops.
Each group performed different functions.
Helots carried equipment and supplied labour, while Perioikoi fought as free soldiers.
The full military system was far more diverse than the popular image of a small force of citizen warriors.
Population
The Perioikoi probably outnumbered the Homoioi by a large margin.
The exact population cannot be determined because ancient sources provide incomplete figures.
Their larger numbers made them increasingly important as the citizen class declined.
The Decline of the Homoioi
Spartan citizen numbers fell because of war, unequal landholding, poverty and low birth rates.
Many men lost status because they could not maintain contributions to communal meals.
As the Homoioi became fewer, Perioikic soldiers carried more of the military burden.
Failure to Grant Citizenship
Sparta could have expanded its citizen class by admitting Perioikoi more widely.
It rarely did so on a large scale.
The exclusiveness of citizenship protected Homoioi privilege but weakened the state’s manpower.
This failure to adapt contributed to Spartan decline.
The Battle of Leuctra
In 371 BCE, Thebes defeated Sparta at the Battle of Leuctra.
Many elite Spartan citizens were killed.
The loss made Perioikic and other non-citizen troops even more important.
The defeat also weakened Spartan control over Messenia and the wider Peloponnese.
The Liberation of Messenia
After Leuctra, Theban forces entered the Peloponnese and supported the creation of an independent Messenian state.
Sparta lost fertile land and a large helot labour force.
Some Perioikic communities formerly under Spartan influence may also have changed allegiance or status.
The Foundation of Megalopolis
The Arcadian city of Megalopolis was founded as a centre of resistance to Spartan power.
The new political landscape limited Spartan influence beyond Laconia.
Perioikic settlements became even more important as the remaining territorial foundation of the state.
Hellenistic Reforms
Spartan kings including Agis the Fourth and Cleomenes the Third attempted to reform land ownership and rebuild the citizen body.
These reforms recognised that the old system had become too narrow.
Some non-citizens may have gained new opportunities, though the details remain uncertain.
Cleomenes the Third
Cleomenes the Third redistributed land, cancelled debts and expanded the army.
He attempted to revive Spartan power and traditional discipline.
His reforms temporarily strengthened the state but ended after defeat at Sellasia.
Nabis
Nabis ruled Sparta during the late Hellenistic period.
He relied upon social groups outside the traditional Homoioi elite.
Hostile ancient writers accused him of tyranny and radical redistribution.
His rule demonstrates how the older social system had changed dramatically.
The Perioikoi Under Roman Rule
Under Roman rule, the political structure of Laconia changed.
Some Perioikic coastal communities became part of a federation known as the League of the Free Laconians.
This organisation reduced direct Spartan control and granted participating towns greater independence.
The League of the Free Laconians
The League of the Free Laconians consisted of communities in southern Laconia.
It was recognised under Roman authority.
Member towns managed common affairs and emphasised their freedom from Sparta.
The league represented a major change from the earlier Perioikic system.
Free Laconian Identity
The title Free Laconians suggests that former dependent communities valued their new political status.
They developed regional institutions and maintained local religious traditions.
Roman power replaced Spartan control while allowing a measure of local autonomy.
Gytheion Under Rome
Gytheion remained an active port under Roman rule.
Its harbour supported trade and communication across the Mediterranean.
Public buildings, inscriptions and monuments reveal continued prosperity.
Economic Continuity
Perioikic and later Free Laconian communities continued farming, trading and producing goods under new political systems.
Their economic importance survived even after Sparta lost military dominance.
Archaeological Evidence
Knowledge of the Perioikoi comes from settlement remains, pottery, inscriptions, coins, sanctuaries and ancient literature.
Archaeological evidence is essential because literary sources rarely describe ordinary Perioikic life in detail.
Settlement Archaeology
Excavations reveal houses, workshops, fortifications and public buildings within Laconian towns.
These remains demonstrate that Perioikic communities were organised settlements rather than isolated rural labourers.
Pottery Evidence
Pottery reveals patterns of trade, diet and household activity.
Imported vessels indicate contact with other parts of Greece and the Mediterranean.
Locally produced pottery provides evidence of regional craft traditions.
Metal Objects
Weapons, tools and bronze dedications demonstrate technical skill.
Differences in style can help identify workshops and trading connections.
Metalworking waste may reveal the location of production areas.
Inscriptions
Inscriptions preserve names, dedications, public decisions and religious offices.
They can reveal local institutions otherwise absent from literary texts.
Roman-period inscriptions are especially valuable for understanding the League of the Free Laconians.
Coins
Coins found in Perioikic settlements reveal commercial exchange and political change.
Local or regional coinage could express community identity.
Foreign coins demonstrate contact with wider markets.
Sanctuaries
Sanctuaries preserve offerings dedicated by local worshippers.
The quality and origin of objects reveal wealth, trade and religious connections.
Perioikic religious life can often be studied more clearly through such material than through historical narratives.
Problems with Ancient Sources
Most surviving authors were interested primarily in Spartan citizens, kings and warfare.
The Perioikoi appear mainly when armies are counted or political crises occur.
Their ordinary experiences, opinions and local institutions were rarely recorded.
Historians must therefore avoid assuming that silence means unimportance.
Herodotus
Herodotus recorded numbers of Perioikic soldiers during the Persian Wars.
His work demonstrates their major military contribution.
However, he provides little detail about their social and economic lives.
Thucydides
Thucydides mentioned Perioikic towns during the Peloponnesian War.
His account shows the strategic importance of the coast, Cythera and Gytheion.
He focused upon military events rather than Perioikic society itself.
Xenophon
Xenophon admired the Spartan constitution and described its military organisation.
He acknowledged the wider Lacedaemonian forces but concentrated upon the citizen system.
His admiration for Sparta may have caused him to understate internal tensions.
Aristotle
Aristotle criticised Spartan political and economic weaknesses.
His analysis helps explain why a small citizen body could not maintain control indefinitely.
He did not provide a complete study of Perioikic institutions.
Pausanias
Pausanias travelled through Laconia during the Roman period.
He described towns, sanctuaries and local traditions.
His work preserves valuable evidence about communities descended from the Perioikic world.
The Spartan Mirage
The Spartan mirage is the idealised image of Sparta as a society composed entirely of disciplined citizen warriors.
This image often ignores the Perioikoi, helots and other groups who made up most of the population.
The Perioikoi reveal that Sparta possessed a complex economy and relied upon specialised civilian labour.
The Myth of Spartan Self-Sufficiency
Popular accounts sometimes suggest that Spartan warriors provided everything they needed through strict simplicity.
In reality, they depended upon farmers, craftsmen, traders and sailors.
The Perioikoi provided many of these services.
Spartan military independence rested upon economic interdependence.
The Myth of a Society Without Trade
Sparta discouraged luxury and foreign influence among citizens.
The wider Lacedaemonian state still participated in trade.
Perioikic ports and merchants imported essential supplies and exported regional products.
The Myth of an Army of Only Spartiates
The famous Homoioi formed only part of the Spartan military system.
Perioikoi, helots, freedmen, mercenaries and allies also served.
At major battles, non-citizen troops could greatly outnumber the Spartiates.
The Meaning of Freedom
The Perioikoi were free in comparison with the helots.
They controlled households, property and occupations.
Their freedom remained limited because they lacked control over central political decisions.
Their status shows that freedom can exist in different degrees.
The Meaning of Dependence
The Perioikoi depended politically upon Sparta.
They supplied soldiers and obeyed foreign policy made by the citizen elite.
Sparta depended economically and militarily upon them in return.
The relationship was therefore unequal but mutually necessary.
The Meaning of Citizenship
Citizenship in Sparta was highly exclusive.
The Perioikoi could perform many duties normally associated with citizenship, including taxation, military service and local administration.
They remained excluded from full political rights.
Their experience demonstrates that service to a state did not guarantee representation within it.
The Meaning of Local Identity
Perioikic communities preserved their own towns, cults and family traditions.
They were Lacedaemonians in military and foreign affairs but remained inhabitants of distinct local settlements.
This dual identity helped the Spartan state control a large territory without eliminating every local institution.
The Meaning of Economic Power
The Perioikoi possessed skills and resources essential to the state.
Economic importance did not automatically lead to political power.
Their situation demonstrates how ruling classes can depend upon groups they exclude from decision-making.
The Meaning of Military Service
Perioikic military service was compulsory and important.
They defended a state in which they lacked full citizenship.
They may have fought from loyalty, obligation, local interest or fear.
Different individuals probably understood their service in different ways.
The Meaning of Social Hierarchy
The Perioikoi occupied a middle position within Spartan hierarchy.
They were below the Homoioi politically but above the helots legally.
This intermediate status helped stabilise the system by separating free non-citizens from the unfree population.
The Perioikoi as a Middle Class
Modern writers sometimes describe the Perioikoi as a middle class.
The comparison is useful because they stood between citizens and helots and performed trade and crafts.
However, ancient social categories did not operate exactly like modern economic classes.
Their identity depended upon political status and local community as much as wealth.
The Perioikoi as Subjects
The Perioikoi were subjects of Sparta because the central state controlled military and foreign policy.
They could not freely withdraw from Lacedaemonian authority.
Their local freedom existed within the limits established by the ruling citizen class.
The Perioikoi as Partners
Despite political subordination, the Perioikoi can also be understood as necessary partners in the Spartan system.
They fought beside citizens, supplied the army and connected Sparta with trade.
The state’s survival required their continuing cooperation.
The Strength of the Perioikic System
Allowing surrounding communities local autonomy reduced the need for direct administration.
Sparta could rely upon Perioikic elites to manage towns and collect resources.
The system provided soldiers and economic production without granting central political power.
The Weakness of the Perioikic System
Excluding a large free population from citizenship limited Sparta’s ability to expand its ruling class.
As Homoioi numbers declined, the state relied more heavily upon people denied political influence.
This imbalance created potential resentment and weakened long-term adaptability.
The Perioikoi and Spartan Conservatism
Spartan tradition valued ancient customs and resisted major political change.
The continued exclusion of the Perioikoi reflected this conservatism.
Reform might have strengthened the state but threatened Homoioi privilege.
Why Sparta Did Not Grant Wider Citizenship
Full citizenship brought access to political authority, land and social honour.
The Homoioi may have feared that admitting Perioikoi would weaken their identity and control.
The agoge and syssitia also created barriers difficult for outsiders to cross.
Short-term protection of privilege contributed to long-term decline.
Perioikic Identity After Spartan Decline
As Sparta lost power, former Perioikic communities gained greater independence.
Local identities that had survived beneath Spartan rule became more politically visible.
The League of the Free Laconians represented the final transformation of these communities from dependants into recognised regional partners under Rome.
The Perioikoi in Modern Scholarship
Modern historians increasingly recognise the importance of the Perioikoi.
Research examines settlement patterns, trade, military numbers and local religion.
This work challenges older accounts centred almost entirely upon Spartan warriors.
Why the Perioikoi Were Overlooked
The dramatic stories of Thermopylae, the agoge and helot oppression attracted greater attention.
Ancient elite writers rarely described ordinary economic life.
The Perioikoi left fewer literary voices of their own.
Their contributions were practical and continuous rather than centred upon one famous event.
Recovering Perioikic History
Archaeology allows historians to reconstruct the lives of communities ignored by literary sources.
Workshops, houses, pottery and inscriptions reveal a varied and productive society.
Regional study demonstrates that Lacedaemon was much more than the central settlement of Sparta.
The Perioikoi and the Economy of War
Spartan warfare required a strong supporting economy.
Weapons had to be manufactured, ships constructed and food transported.
The Perioikoi provided the production and logistical systems behind military campaigns.
Their work transformed citizen discipline into practical military power.
The Perioikoi and Naval Expansion
Sparta’s final victory over Athens required naval strength.
Persian funding helped, but money alone could not create fleets.
Coastal workers, shipbuilders and sailors were needed.
The Perioikoi supplied skills outside the traditional experience of the Homoioi.
The Perioikoi and Cultural Exchange
Merchants and artisans carried artistic styles, religious objects and technical knowledge into Laconia.
They also exported Laconian goods abroad.
Through them, Sparta remained connected with Greek culture despite its reputation for isolation.
The Perioikoi and Regional Diversity
Perioikic communities were not all identical.
Coastal towns focused upon shipping and fishing.
Mountain settlements relied upon herding, timber or mining.
Fertile valleys supported agriculture.
Each town possessed its own economic and religious character.
Fishing
Coastal Perioikoi caught fish and gathered marine resources.
Fish provided food for local communities and could be sold inland.
Salted or preserved fish travelled greater distances.
Salt Production
Coastal areas could produce salt through the evaporation of seawater.
Salt was essential for food preservation, cooking and animal care.
Its production and trade added to the importance of Perioikic ports.
Timber
Mountain forests supplied wood for buildings, tools, fuel and ships.
Cutting and transporting large trees required coordinated labour.
Timber resources gave inland Perioikic communities economic value.
Mining and Metals
Parts of Laconia contained mineral resources.
Perioikoi may have participated in mining, smelting and transport.
Access to metals supported weapon production and trade.
Purple Dye
Some southern coastal regions were associated with shellfish used to produce purple dye.
The dye was valuable and required considerable labour.
Its production could connect Laconian communities with luxury markets.
Stone and Marble
Laconia contained useful stone for building and sculpture.
Perioikic quarry workers extracted and transported material.
Local stone supported temples, monuments and later Roman construction.
The Port Economy
Ports required warehouses, docks, repair yards and markets.
Workers loaded and unloaded ships, maintained ropes and stored cargo.
Perioikic ports were centres of employment and cultural contact.
Road Networks
Roads linked ports to Sparta and inland settlements.
Goods moved by cart, pack animal and human labour.
Military forces used the same routes during campaigns.
The Perioikoi maintained the physical connections holding the state together.
Taxes and Contributions
The exact taxes paid by the Perioikoi are not fully known.
They likely supplied troops, equipment and resources according to Spartan demands.
Local communities may also have contributed money or goods during wars and festivals.
Military Burdens
Long wars placed heavy demands upon Perioikic households.
Men were absent during campaigns, while communities still needed to maintain production.
Military deaths affected families that lacked the political honours granted to Homoioi.
Economic Burdens
Providing ships, weapons and supplies could place strain upon towns.
Spartan authorities determined many demands without Perioikic representation.
The benefits of belonging to Lacedaemon had to be balanced against these obligations.
Social Mobility
There is little evidence that ordinary Perioikoi could easily become full Spartan citizens.
Exceptional military service might bring rewards, but the boundary remained strong.
Wealth alone did not provide access to the Homoioi.
Exceptional Advancement
During periods of crisis, Sparta occasionally granted new statuses or freedoms to non-citizens.
Such measures were usually limited and practical.
They did not create a consistent route from Perioikic status to full citizenship.
The Value of Perioikic Labour
The Perioikoi demonstrate that military societies depend upon civilian skill.
No army can survive without food, tools, transport, repair and trade.
Their labour was less celebrated than battlefield courage but equally necessary.
The Value of Local Autonomy
Local self-management allowed communities to respond to regional needs.
Perioikic towns could organise farming, markets and worship without constant central intervention.
This flexibility helped Sparta govern a wide territory with a small citizen body.
The Cost of Political Exclusion
Political exclusion denied the Perioikoi a formal voice in decisions affecting their lives.
They could be ordered into wars they had not chosen.
The state used their skills while protecting the privileges of the Homoioi.
The Cost of Dependence
Because Sparta controlled foreign policy, Perioikic merchants could be affected by conflicts and alliances beyond their control.
Defeat or invasion threatened their towns even when they had not participated in political decision-making.
A Lesson in Hidden Labour
The history of the Perioikoi teaches that famous achievements often depend upon overlooked workers.
The Spartan army became legendary, but its weapons, ships and supplies came from a wider society.
Studying the Perioikoi reveals the hidden foundations beneath military glory.
A Lesson in Citizenship
The Perioikoi performed many duties of citizens without receiving equal political rights.
Their experience raises questions about the relationship between service, taxation and representation.
A state may rely upon people while denying them participation in power.
A Lesson in Economic Interdependence
The Homoioi, Perioikoi and helots performed different but connected roles.
Citizen military life depended upon helot agriculture and Perioikic production.
No group existed independently of the others.
A Lesson in Adaptability
Sparta’s failure to admit more Perioikoi into citizenship limited its ability to respond to population decline.
Protecting a narrow social boundary weakened the state.
Political systems that refuse adaptation may preserve privilege while losing strength.
A Lesson in Regional Identity
The Perioikoi show that ancient states could contain many local identities.
People could belong to Lacedaemon while remaining citizens of a particular town.
Local religion, economy and family life survived beneath wider political control.
A Lesson in Historical Memory
History often remembers rulers and soldiers more clearly than merchants, farmers and craftsmen.
The Perioikoi remind modern readers to examine the people who made famous societies function.
Why the Perioikoi Matter
The Perioikoi matter because they formed the economic and military backbone of the Spartan state.
They supplied skilled labour, trade, ports and large numbers of soldiers.
They also reveal that Sparta was not a simple community of equal warriors.
It was a complex hierarchy containing different forms of freedom, dependence and privilege.
The Legacy of the Perioikoi
The Perioikoi did not leave a heroic legend equal to that of the three hundred Spartans.
Their legacy survives through Laconian towns, archaeological remains and evidence of trade and craftsmanship.
The later League of the Free Laconians continued the regional identity of communities once controlled by Sparta.
Conclusion
The Spartan Perioikoi were free inhabitants of the towns and villages surrounding the central Spartan citizen community.
Their name meant those dwelling around, reflecting both their geographical location and their position within the Lacedaemonian state.
They were not helots and were not owned as agricultural dependants.
They could hold property, form households, practise trades and manage many local affairs.
However, they were not full Spartan citizens.
They did not participate in the Apella, elect ephors, join the Gerousia or share the complete political privileges of the Homoioi.
The Perioikoi occupied an intermediate position between the citizen elite and the unfree helot population.
Their economic role was essential.
They farmed land, raised animals, operated ports and traded with foreign regions.
They worked as potters, metalworkers, carpenters, leatherworkers, shipbuilders and stonecutters.
They manufactured the weapons, shields and armour used by the Spartan army.
They also produced ordinary goods needed by households and religious sanctuaries.
Spartan citizens were discouraged from many forms of commerce and manual work.
The Perioikoi therefore supplied the skills and products that allowed the Homoioi to concentrate upon military training and public service.
Perioikic coastal settlements connected Sparta with the Mediterranean world.
Gytheion served as the principal Spartan port and naval base.
Perioikic sailors and shipwrights became especially important when Sparta developed a fleet during the Peloponnesian War.
Trade brought grain, metals and other essential materials into Laconia.
The military contribution of the Perioikoi was equally significant.
They fought as hoplites, sailors and supporting troops in Spartan campaigns.
At major battles, they could greatly outnumber the full Spartan citizens.
Their service at Plataea and throughout the Peloponnesian War demonstrates that Spartan victories were never achieved by the Homoioi alone.
As the citizen population declined, Sparta relied increasingly upon Perioikic manpower.
Despite this dependence, the state rarely granted them full citizenship.
The Perioikoi lived within organised communities possessing local identities and religious traditions.
Towns such as Amyclae, Gytheion, Sellasia and those of Cythera occupied important economic and strategic positions.
Local administration appears to have continued under Spartan authority.
Perioikic communities managed daily affairs while obeying Sparta in military and foreign policy.
This arrangement allowed a small citizen class to control a broad territory without directly governing every settlement.
The reasons for Perioikic loyalty were probably complex.
They may have benefited from local autonomy, military protection and access to regional trade.
Local elites could gain status through cooperation.
Spartan power and the threat of punishment also limited resistance.
The Perioikoi generally remained loyal during helot rebellions, perhaps because they wished to protect their own freedom and property.
However, the conspiracy of Kinadon suggests that some free non-citizens resented the narrow privileges of the Homoioi.
The Perioikoi expose the contradictions within the Spartan system.
They were free but politically subordinate.
They defended the state but could not determine its policies.
They produced its weapons and wealth but remained excluded from the ruling citizen class.
Their economic importance did not lead to equal political power.
The decline of the Homoioi made this contradiction increasingly damaging.
Sparta needed more citizens and soldiers but refused to widen membership significantly.
Perioikoi, freed helots and other groups carried growing military responsibilities while the full citizen body continued shrinking.
This inability to adapt contributed to Sparta’s loss of power.
After the defeat at Leuctra and the loss of Messenia, Perioikic territory became even more important to the surviving state.
During the Hellenistic period, reforming kings attempted to restore Spartan strength, but the older social order could not be fully rebuilt.
Under Roman rule, several former Perioikic towns joined the League of the Free Laconians.
The federation marked the end of direct Spartan control over many southern communities.
It also demonstrated the survival of local identities that had existed beneath Lacedaemonian rule.
The Perioikoi are less famous than the Spartan warriors because ancient writers focused upon kings, battles and citizen education.
Archaeology reveals a fuller picture.
Pottery, metalwork, ports, inscriptions and settlements demonstrate the skill and diversity of the surrounding communities.
Their history challenges the idea of Sparta as an isolated military camp without trade or craftsmanship.
Sparta was supported by a broad regional economy, and the Perioikoi stood at its centre.
The study of the Perioikoi provides an important lesson about hidden labour and political exclusion.
Famous armies depend upon people who manufacture equipment, grow food, repair ships and transport supplies.
Powerful states often rely upon groups that receive little recognition and limited representation.
The Spartan Perioikoi were therefore not minor figures at the edge of history.
They were essential farmers, merchants, craftsmen, sailors and soldiers whose work made the Spartan state possible.